Digital Inclusion and Cloud-Based Public Service Delivery: Who Gets Left Behind and Why

Abstract

Efficiency and integration imperatives are driving the global migration of public services to centralised cloud platforms. However, this shift coincides with persistent policy agendas for digital inclusion, creating a potential ‘inclusion paradox’ whereby technologically advanced services may inadvertently exacerbate access inequalities for digitally marginalised groups. This study empirically examines this paradox, seeking to ascertain how the technical and design attributes of cloud-based public services affect accessibility and to identify governance mechanisms that can alleviate exclusion risks. Employing a sequential, explanatory, mixed-methods design, the researcher analysed behavioural data from 2.1 million sessions on a national cloud portal linked to geodemographic data. It used multi-level modelling to assess individual and area-level determinants of service completion, complemented by a randomised A/B test of design interventions and 45 stakeholder interviews. The analysis confirms the inclusion paradox. While the cloud portal improved operational efficiency, it widened access gaps: completion rates were significantly lower for smartphone users and those in deprived areas. Crucially, the platform’s technical performance (e.g., page load time) was a strong independent predictor of exclusion, disproportionately affecting mobile-dependent users. Field experiments proved that inclusive design interventions (e.g., low-bandwidth optimisation) could significantly improve outcomes. Governance analysis revealed that inclusive design is often compromised without formal mandates. The study contributes to digital government theory by empirically linking technical architecture to social exclusion, advancing concepts of the user-centricity paradox and adaptive governance. It provides evidence-based implications for policy, advocating for ‘inclusion-smart’ strategies with mandated performance standards, and for design, promoting architectural pluralism and hybrid cloud-edge models to ensure equitable public service delivery in the digital age.